Array ( [0] => {{Short description|Applied science and research}} [1] => {{Other uses}} [2] => {{pp-semi-indef}} [3] => {{Use American English|date=January 2020}} [4] => {{Use mdy dates|date=January 2020}} [5] => {{CS1 config|mode=cs1}} [6] => [[File:Maquina vapor Watt ETSIIM.jpg|thumb|253px|The [[steam engine]], the major driver in the [[Industrial Revolution]], underscores the importance of engineering in modern history. This [[beam engine]] is on display in the [[Technical University of Madrid]].]] [7] => {{TopicTOC-Engineering}} [8] => [9] => '''Engineering''' is the practice of using [[natural science]], [[mathematics]], and the [[engineering design process]]{{cite web |url=https://issues.org/penumbra-engineering-perspective-hammack-anderson/ |title=Working in the Penumbra of Understanding |last1=Hammack |first1=William |last2=Anderson |first2=John |date=February 16, 2022 |website=[[Issues in Science and Technology]] |publisher=[[National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine]] and [[Arizona State University]] |access-date=August 3, 2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803142849/https://issues.org/penumbra-engineering-perspective-hammack-anderson/ |archive-date=August 3, 2023 |quote=The method used by engineers to create artifacts and systems—from cellular telephony, computers and smartphones, and GPS to remote controls, airplanes, and biomimetic materials and devices—isn’t the same method scientists use in their work. The scientific method has a prescribed process: state a question, observe, state a hypothesis, test, analyze, and interpret. It doesn’t know what will be discovered, what truth will be revealed. In contrast, the engineering method aims for a specific goal and cannot be reduced to a set of fixed steps that must be followed. }} to solve technical problems, increase efficiency and productivity, and improve systems. Modern engineering comprises many subfields which include designing and improving [[infrastructure]], [[machinery]], [[vehicles]], [[electronics]], [[Materials engineering|materials]], and [[energy]] systems.definition of "engineering" from the [10] => https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210216234801/https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/ |date=February 16, 2021 }} [11] => Cambridge Academic Content Dictionary © Cambridge University [12] => [13] => The discipline of engineering encompasses a broad range of more specialized [[List of engineering branches|fields of engineering]], each with a more specific emphasis on particular areas of [[applied mathematics]], [[applied science]], and types of application. See [[glossary of engineering]]. [14] => [15] => The term ''engineering'' is derived from the [[Latin]] {{lang|la|ingenium}}, meaning "cleverness" and ''ingeniare'', meaning "to contrive, devise".{{cite web|title=About IAENG|url=http://www.iaeng.org/about_IAENG.html|website=iaeng.org|publisher=International Association of Engineers|access-date=December 17, 2016|archive-date=January 26, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126145541/http://www.iaeng.org/about_IAENG.html|url-status=live}} [16] => [17] => ==Definition== [18] => The [[American Engineers' Council for Professional Development]] (ECPD, the predecessor of [[Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology|ABET]]){{Cite web |url=https://www.abet.org/about-abet/history/ |title=About ABET - History |access-date=27 April 2024 |archive-date=26 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240326113804/https://www.abet.org/about-abet/history/ |url-status=live}} has defined "engineering" as: [19] => {{Blockquote|The creative application of scientific principles to design or develop structures, machines, apparatus, or manufacturing processes, or works utilizing them singly or in combination; or to construct or operate the same with full cognizance of their design; or to forecast their behavior under specific operating conditions; all as respects an intended function, economics of operation and safety to life and property.{{Cite web |url=https://www.worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/26393909 |title=Engineers' Council for Professional Development. (1947). Canons of ethics for engineers |access-date=August 10, 2021 |archive-date=September 29, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929123703/http://www.worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/26393909%26referer%3Dbrief_results |url-status=live }}{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica |last=Smith |first=Ralph J. |title=engineering |url=https://www.britannica.com/technology/engineering |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240425073917/https://www.britannica.com/technology/engineering |archive-date=25 April 2024 |date=29 March 2024}}}} [20] => [21] => ==History== [22] => {{Main|History of engineering}} [23] => [[File:Grondplan citadel Lille.JPG|thumb|Relief map of the [[Citadel of Lille]], designed in 1668 by [[Vauban]], the foremost military engineer of his age]] [24] => [25] => Engineering has existed since ancient times, when [[humans]] devised inventions such as the wedge, lever, wheel and pulley, etc. [26] => [27] => The term ''engineering'' is derived from the word ''engineer'', which itself dates back to the 14th century when an ''engine'er'' (literally, one who builds or operates a ''[[siege engine]]'') referred to "a constructor of military engines".{{Cite OED|engineer}} In this context, now obsolete, an "engine" referred to a military machine, ''i.e.'', a mechanical contraption used in war (for example, a [[catapult]]). Notable examples of the obsolete usage which have survived to the present day are military engineering corps, ''e.g.'', the [[United States Army Corps of Engineers|U.S. Army Corps of Engineers]]. [28] => [29] => The word "engine" itself is of even older origin, ultimately deriving from the Latin {{lang|la|ingenium}} ({{Circa|1250}}), meaning "innate quality, especially mental power, hence a clever invention."Origin: 1250–1300; ME engin < AF, OF < L ingenium nature, innate quality, esp. mental power, hence a clever invention, equiv. to in- + -genium, equiv. to gen- begetting; Source: Random House Unabridged Dictionary, Random House, Inc. 2006. [30] => [31] => Later, as the design of civilian structures, such as bridges and buildings, matured as a technical discipline, the term [[civil engineering]] entered the lexicon as a way to distinguish between those specializing in the construction of such non-military projects and those involved in the discipline of [[military engineering]]. [32] => [33] => ===Ancient era=== [34] => [[File:Pont du Gard BLS.jpg|thumb|The Ancient Romans built [[aqueduct (watercourse)|aqueducts]] to bring a steady supply of clean and fresh water to cities and towns in the empire.]] [35] => The [[Egyptian pyramids|pyramids]] in [[ancient Egypt]], [[ziggurats]] of [[Mesopotamia]], the [[Acropolis of Athens|Acropolis]] and [[Parthenon]] in Greece, the [[Roman aqueduct]]s, [[Via Appia]] and Colosseum, [[Teotihuacán]], and the [[Brihadeeswarar Temple]] of [[Thanjavur]], among many others, stand as a testament to the ingenuity and skill of ancient civil and military engineers. Other monuments, no longer standing, such as the [[Hanging Gardens of Babylon]] and the [[Pharos of Alexandria]], were important engineering achievements of their time and were considered among the [[Seven Wonders of the Ancient World]]. [36] => [37] => The six classic [[simple machines]] were known in the [[ancient Near East]]. The [[wedge (mechanical device)|wedge]] and the [[inclined plane]] (ramp) were known since [[prehistoric]] times.{{cite book |last1=Moorey |first1=Peter Roger Stuart |title=Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries: The Archaeological Evidence |date=1999 |publisher=[[Eisenbrauns]] |isbn=978-1-57506-042-2}} The [[wheel]], along with the [[wheel and axle]] mechanism, was invented in [[Mesopotamia]] (modern Iraq) during the 5th millennium BC.{{cite book|title=A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East|author=D.T. Potts|year=2012|page=285}} The [[lever]] mechanism first appeared around 5,000 years ago in the [[Near East]], where it was used in a simple [[balance scale]],{{cite book |last1=Paipetis |first1=S. A. |last2=Ceccarelli |first2=Marco |title=The Genius of Archimedes – 23 Centuries of Influence on Mathematics, Science and Engineering: Proceedings of an International Conference held at Syracuse, Italy, June 8–10, 2010 |date=2010 |publisher=[[Springer Science & Business Media]] |isbn=978-90-481-9091-1 |page=416}} and to move large objects in [[ancient Egyptian technology]].{{cite book |last1=Clarke |first1=Somers |last2=Engelbach |first2=Reginald |title=Ancient Egyptian Construction and Architecture |date=1990 |publisher=[[Courier Corporation]] |isbn=978-0-486-26485-1 |pages=86–90}} The lever was also used in the [[shadoof]] water-lifting device, the first [[Crane (machine)|crane]] machine, which appeared in Mesopotamia {{Circa|3000 BC}}, and then in [[ancient Egyptian technology]] {{Circa|2000 BC}}.{{cite book |last1=Faiella |first1=Graham |title=The Technology of Mesopotamia |date=2006 |publisher=[[The Rosen Publishing Group]] |isbn=978-1-4042-0560-4 |page=27 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bGMyBTS0-v0C&pg=PA27 |access-date=October 13, 2019 |archive-date=January 3, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200103045623/https://books.google.com/books?id=bGMyBTS0-v0C&pg=PA27 |url-status=live }} The earliest evidence of [[pulley]]s date back to Mesopotamia in the early 2nd millennium BC,{{cite book |last1=Moorey |first1=Peter Roger Stuart |title=Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries: The Archaeological Evidence |date=1999 |publisher=[[Eisenbrauns]] |isbn=978-1-57506-042-2 |page=4}} and [[ancient Egypt]] during the [[Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt|Twelfth Dynasty]] (1991–1802 BC).{{cite book |last1=Arnold |first1=Dieter |title=Building in Egypt: Pharaonic Stone Masonry |date=1991 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-511374-7 |page=71}} The [[Screw (simple machine)|screw]], the last of the simple machines to be invented,{{cite book| last = Woods| first = Michael| author2 = Mary B. Woods| title = Ancient Machines: From Wedges to Waterwheels| publisher = Twenty-First Century Books| year = 2000| location = USA| pages = 58| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=E1tzW_aDnxsC&pg=PA58| isbn = 0-8225-2994-7| access-date = October 13, 2019| archive-date = January 4, 2020| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200104003216/https://books.google.com/books?id=E1tzW_aDnxsC&pg=PA58| url-status = live}} first appeared in Mesopotamia during the [[Neo-Assyrian]] period (911–609) BC. The [[Egyptian pyramids]] were built using three of the six simple machines, the inclined plane, the wedge, and the lever, to create structures like the [[Great Pyramid of Giza]].{{cite book|title=Ancient Machines: From Grunts to Graffiti|last=Wood|first=Michael|publisher=Runestone Press|year=2000|isbn=0-8225-2996-3|location=Minneapolis, MN|pages=[https://archive.org/details/ancientcommunica00wood/page/35 35, 36]|url=https://archive.org/details/ancientcommunica00wood/page/35}} [38] => [39] => The earliest civil engineer known by name is [[Imhotep]]. As one of the officials of the [[Pharaoh]], [[Djoser|Djosèr]], he probably designed and supervised the construction of the [[Pyramid of Djoser]] (the [[Step Pyramid]]) at [[Saqqara]] in Egypt around 2630–2611 BC.{{cite book |last=Kemp |first=Barry J. |author-link=Barry J. Kemp |title=Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilisation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IT6CAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT159 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |date= 2007 |page=159 |isbn=978-1-134-56388-3 |access-date=August 20, 2019 |archive-date=August 1, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801100712/https://books.google.com/books?id=IT6CAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT159 |url-status=live }} The earliest practical [[water-power]]ed machines, the [[water wheel]] and [[watermill]], first appeared in the [[Persian Empire]], in what are now Iraq and Iran, by the early 4th century BC.{{cite book |last1=Selin |first1=Helaine |title=Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Westen Cultures |date=2013 |publisher=[[Springer Science & Business Media]] |isbn=978-94-017-1416-7 |page=282}} [40] => [41] => [[Kingdom of Kush|Kush]] developed the [[Sakia]] during the 4th century BC, which relied on animal power instead of human energy.{{cite book | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=gB6DcMU94GUC&q=ancient+irrigation+saqiya&pg=PA309 | title= Ancient civilizations of Africa | author= G. Mokhtar | publisher= Unesco. International Scientific Committee for the Drafting of a General History of Africa | page= 309 | via= Books.google.com | access-date= 2012-06-19 | isbn= 978-0-435-94805-4 | date= 1981 | archive-date= May 2, 2022 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220502161727/https://books.google.com/books?id=gB6DcMU94GUC&q=ancient+irrigation+saqiya&pg=PA309 | url-status= live }}[[Hafirs]] were developed as a type of [[reservoir]] in Kush to store and contain water as well as boost irrigation.Fritz Hintze, Kush XI; pp. 222–224. [[Sappers]] were employed to build [[causeways]] during military campaigns.{{cite web |url=https://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/siegewarfare.html| title=Siege warfare in ancient Egypt |publisher=Tour Egypt|access-date=23 May 2020}} Kushite ancestors built [[speos]] during the Bronze Age between 3700 and 3250 BC.{{cite book| last = Bianchi| first = Robert Steven| title = Daily Life of the Nubians| year = 2004| publisher = Greenwood Publishing Group| isbn = 978-0-313-32501-4| page = 227 }}[[bloomery|Bloomeries]] and [[blast furnace]]s were also created during the 7th centuries BC in Kush.{{Cite journal|last1=Humphris|first1=Jane|last2=Charlton|first2=Michael F. |last3=Keen |first3=Jake |last4=Sauder |first4=Lee |last5=Alshishani |first5=Fareed |date=2018 |title=Iron Smelting in Sudan: Experimental Archaeology at The Royal City of Meroe |journal=Journal of Field Archaeology |volume=43 |issue=5 |pages=399 |doi=10.1080/00934690.2018.1479085 |issn=0093-4690|doi-access=free }}{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PZcX2jQFTRcC&pg=PA61|title=A History of Sub-Saharan Africa|first1=Robert O.|last1=Collins|first2=James M.|last2=Burns|date= 2007|publisher=Cambridge University Press|via=Google Books|isbn=978-0-521-86746-7|access-date=September 23, 2020|archive-date=July 9, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709183058/https://books.google.com/books?id=PZcX2jQFTRcC&pg=PA61|url-status=live}}{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6tsaBtp0WrMC&pg=PA173|title=The Nubian Past: An Archaeology of the Sudan|first=David N.|last=Edwards|date= 2004|publisher=Taylor & Francis|via=Google Books|isbn=978-0-203-48276-6|access-date=September 23, 2020|archive-date=July 9, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709181948/https://books.google.com/books?id=6tsaBtp0WrMC&pg=PA173|url-status=live}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Humphris J, Charlton MF, Keen J, Sauder L, Alshishani F | title = Iron Smelting in Sudan: Experimental Archaeology at The Royal City of Meroe | journal = Journal of Field Archaeology | volume = 43 | issue = 5 | pages = 399–416 | date = June 2018 | doi = 10.1080/00934690.2018.1479085 | doi-access = free }} [42] => [43] => [[Ancient Greece]] developed machines in both civilian and military domains. The [[Antikythera mechanism]], an early known mechanical [[analog computer]],"[http://www.antikythera-mechanism.gr/project/general/the-project.html The Antikythera Mechanism Research Project] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080428070448/http://www.antikythera-mechanism.gr/project/general/the-project.html |date=2008-04-28 }}", The Antikythera Mechanism Research Project. Retrieved July 1, 2007 Quote: "The Antikythera Mechanism is now understood to be dedicated to astronomical phenomena and operates as a complex mechanical "computer" which tracks the cycles of the Solar System."{{cite news |last=Wilford |first=John |date=July 31, 2008 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/31/science/31computer.html?hp |title=Discovering How Greeks Computed in 100 B.C. |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=February 21, 2017 |archive-date=December 4, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131204053238/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/31/science/31computer.html?hp |url-status=live }} and the mechanical [[Archimedes#Discoveries and inventions|inventions]] of [[Archimedes]], are examples of Greek mechanical engineering. Some of Archimedes' inventions, as well as the Antikythera mechanism, required sophisticated knowledge of [[Differential (mechanical device)|differential gearing]] or [[epicyclic gearing]], two key principles in machine theory that helped design the [[gear train]]s of the Industrial Revolution, and are widely used in fields such as [[robotics]] and [[automotive engineering]].{{cite journal | author = Wright, M T. | year = 2005 | title = Epicyclic Gearing and the Antikythera Mechanism, part 2 | journal = Antiquarian Horology | volume = 29 | issue = 1 (September 2005) | pages = 54–60 }} [44] => [45] => Ancient Chinese, Greek, Roman and [[Huns|Hunnic]] armies employed military machines and inventions such as [[artillery]] which was developed by the Greeks around the 4th century BC,[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/244231/ancient-Greece/261062/Military-technology Britannica on Greek civilization in the 5th century – Military technology] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090606072841/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/244231/ancient-Greece/261062/Military-technology |date=June 6, 2009 }} Quote: "The 7th century, by contrast, had witnessed rapid innovations, such as the introduction of the hoplite and the trireme, which still were the basic instruments of war in the 5th." and "But it was the development of artillery that opened an epoch, and this invention did not predate the 4th century. It was first heard of in the context of Sicilian warfare against Carthage in the time of Dionysius I of Syracuse." the [[trireme]], the [[ballista]] and the [[catapult]]. In the Middle Ages, the [[trebuchet]] was developed. [46] => [47] => ===Middle Ages=== [48] => The earliest practical [[wind-power]]ed machines, the [[windmill]] and [[wind pump]], first appeared in the [[Muslim world]] during the [[Islamic Golden Age]], in what are now Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan, by the 9th century AD.[[Ahmad Y Hassan]], [[Donald Routledge Hill]] (1986). ''Islamic Technology: An illustrated history'', p. 54. [[Cambridge University Press]]. {{ISBN|0-521-42239-6}}.{{cite book |first=Adam |last=Lucas |year=2006 |title=Wind, Water, Work: Ancient and Medieval Milling Technology |publisher=Brill Publishers |isbn=90-04-14649-0 |page=65}}{{cite book|last1=Eldridge|first1=Frank|title=Wind Machines|date=1980|publisher=Litton Educational Publishing, Inc.|location=New York|isbn=0-442-26134-9|page=[https://archive.org/details/windmachines00fran/page/15 15]|edition=2nd|url=https://archive.org/details/windmachines00fran/page/15}}{{cite book|last1=Shepherd|first1=William|title=Electricity Generation Using Wind Power|date=2011|publisher=World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.|location=Singapore|isbn=978-981-4304-13-9|page=4|edition=1}} The earliest practical [[steam-power]]ed machine was a [[steam jack]] driven by a [[steam turbine]], described in 1551 by [[Taqi al-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf]] in [[Ottoman Egypt]].[http://www.history-science-technology.com/Notes/Notes%201.htm Taqi al-Din and the First Steam Turbine, 1551 A.D.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080218171045/http://www.history-science-technology.com/Notes/Notes%201.htm |date=February 18, 2008 }}, web page, accessed on line October 23, 2009; this web page refers to [[Ahmad Y Hassan]] (1976), ''Taqi al-Din and Arabic Mechanical Engineering'', pp. 34–5, Institute for the History of Arabic Science, [[University of Aleppo]].[[Ahmad Y. Hassan]] (1976), ''Taqi al-Din and Arabic Mechanical Engineering'', pp. 34–35, Institute for the History of Arabic Science, [[University of Aleppo]] [49] => [50] => The [[cotton gin]] was invented in India by the 6th century AD,{{cite book|ref=Lakwete|author=Lakwete, Angela|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uOMaGVnPfBcC|title=Inventing the Cotton Gin: Machine and Myth in Antebellum America|place=Baltimore|publisher=The Johns Hopkins University Press|year=2003|isbn=978-0-8018-7394-2|pages=1–6|access-date=October 13, 2019|archive-date=April 20, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210420214459/https://books.google.com/books?id=uOMaGVnPfBcC|url-status=live}} and the [[spinning wheel]] was invented in the [[Islamic world]] by the early 11th century,{{cite book | last = Pacey | first = Arnold | title = Technology in World Civilization: A Thousand-Year History | orig-year = 1990 | edition = First MIT Press paperback | year = 1991 | publisher = The MIT Press | location = Cambridge MA | pages = 23–24}} both of which were fundamental to the growth of the [[cotton industry]]. The spinning wheel was also a precursor to the [[spinning jenny]], which was a key development during the early [[Industrial Revolution]] in the 18th century.{{cite book |last1=Žmolek |first1=Michael Andrew |title=Rethinking the Industrial Revolution: Five Centuries of Transition from Agrarian to Industrial Capitalism in England |date=2013 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-25179-3 |page=328 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-RKaAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA328 |quote=The spinning jenny was basically an adaptation of its precursor the spinning wheel |access-date=October 13, 2019 |archive-date=December 29, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191229031336/https://books.google.com/books?id=-RKaAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA328 |url-status=live }} [51] => [52] => The earliest [[Program (machine)|programmable machines]] were developed in the Muslim world. A [[music sequencer]], a programmable [[musical instrument]], was the earliest type of programmable machine. The first music sequencer was an automated [[flute]] player invented by the [[Banu Musa]] brothers, described in their ''[[Book of Ingenious Devices]]'', in the 9th century.{{Cite journal |last1=Koetsier |first1=Teun |year=2001 |title=On the prehistory of programmable machines: musical automata, looms, calculators |journal=Mechanism and Machine Theory |volume=36 |issue=5 |pages=589–603 |publisher=Elsevier |doi=10.1016/S0094-114X(01)00005-2 }}{{cite journal |last1=Kapur |first1=Ajay |last2=Carnegie |first2=Dale |last3=Murphy |first3=Jim |last4=Long |first4=Jason |title=Loudspeakers Optional: A history of non-loudspeaker-based electroacoustic music |journal=[[Organised Sound]] |date=2017 |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=195–205 |doi=10.1017/S1355771817000103 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |s2cid=143427257 |issn=1355-7718|doi-access=free }} In 1206, Al-Jazari invented programmable [[automata]]/[[robot]]s. He described four [[automaton]] musicians, including drummers operated by a programmable [[drum machine]], where they could be made to play different rhythms and different drum patterns.Professor Noel Sharkey, [https://web.archive.org/web/20070629182810/http://www.shef.ac.uk/marcoms/eview/articles58/robot.html A 13th Century Programmable Robot (Archive)], [[University of Sheffield]]. [53] => [54] => [[File:Agricola1.jpg|thumb|upright|A water-powered [[mine hoist]] used for raising ore, {{circa|1556}}]] [55] => [56] => Before the development of modern engineering, mathematics was used by artisans and craftsmen, such as [[millwright]]s, [[clockmaker]]s, instrument makers and surveyors. Aside from these professions, universities were not believed to have had much practical significance to technology.{{rp|32}} [57] => [58] => A standard reference for the state of mechanical arts during the Renaissance is given in the mining engineering treatise ''[[De re metallica]]'' (1556), which also contains sections on geology, mining, and chemistry. ''De re metallica'' was the standard chemistry reference for the next 180 years. [59] => [60] => ===Modern era=== [61] => [[File:The world's first iron bridge.jpg|thumb|left|253px|The application of the steam engine allowed coke to be substituted for charcoal in iron making, lowering the cost of iron, which provided engineers with a new material for building bridges. This bridge was made of [[cast iron]], which was soon displaced by less brittle [[wrought iron]] as a structural material.]] [62] => The science of [[classical mechanics]], sometimes called Newtonian mechanics, formed the scientific basis of much of modern engineering.{{cite book|title=Science and Technology in the Industrial Revolution |url=https://archive.org/details/sciencetechnolog00aemu |url-access=registration|last1=Musson|first1=A.E.|last2=Robinson|first2=Eric H.|year=1969|publisher =University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-0802016379 }} With the rise of engineering as a [[profession]] in the 18th century, the term became more narrowly applied to fields in which mathematics and science were applied to these ends. Similarly, in addition to military and civil engineering, the fields then known as the [[mechanic arts]] became incorporated into engineering. [63] => [64] => Canal building was an important engineering work during the early phases of the Industrial Revolution.{{cite book|title=The Transportation Revolution, 1815–1860 |last=Taylor|first= George Rogers|year=1969 [65] => |publisher=M.E. Sharpe |isbn= 978-0-87332-101-3}} [66] => [67] => [68] => [[John Smeaton]] was the first self-proclaimed civil engineer and is often regarded as the "father" of civil engineering. He was an English civil engineer responsible for the design of bridges, canals, harbors, and lighthouses. He was also a capable [[mechanical engineer]] and an eminent [[physicist]]. Using a model water wheel, Smeaton conducted experiments for seven years, determining ways to increase efficiency.{{cite book|title=The Most Powerful Idea in the World: A Story of Steam, Industry and Invention|last1=Rosen|first1= William|year= 2012 |publisher = University of Chicago Press|isbn= 978-0-226-72634-2 }}{{rp|127}} Smeaton introduced iron axles and gears to water wheels.{{rp|69}} Smeaton also made mechanical improvements to the [[Newcomen atmospheric engine|Newcomen steam engine]]. Smeaton designed the third [[Eddystone Lighthouse]] (1755–59) where he pioneered the use of '[[hydraulic lime]]' (a form of [[mortar (masonry)|mortar]] which will set under water) and developed a technique involving dovetailed blocks of granite in the building of the lighthouse. He is important in the history, rediscovery of, and development of modern [[cement]], because he identified the compositional requirements needed to obtain "hydraulicity" in lime; work which led ultimately to the invention of [[Portland cement]]. [69] => [70] => Applied science led to the development of the steam engine. The sequence of events began with the invention of the [[barometer]] and the measurement of atmospheric pressure by [[Evangelista Torricelli]] in 1643, demonstration of the force of atmospheric pressure by [[Otto von Guericke]] using the [[Magdeburg hemispheres]] in 1656, laboratory experiments by [[Denis Papin]], who built experimental model steam engines and demonstrated the use of a piston, which he published in 1707. [[Edward Somerset, 2nd Marquess of Worcester]] published a book of 100 inventions containing a method for raising waters similar to a [[coffee percolator]]. [[Samuel Morland]], a mathematician and inventor who worked on pumps, left notes at the Vauxhall Ordinance Office on a steam pump design that [[Thomas Savery]] read. In 1698 Savery built a steam pump called "The Miner's Friend". It employed both vacuum and pressure.{{cite book | last = Jenkins | first = Rhys | title = Links in the History of Engineering and Technology from Tudor Times| publisher = Ayer Publishing| year = 1936 | page = 66 | isbn = 978-0-8369-2167-0}} Iron merchant [[Thomas Newcomen]], who built the first commercial piston steam engine in 1712, was not known to have any scientific training.{{rp|32}} [71] => [72] => [[File:Pan_Am_Boeing_747-121_N732PA_Bidini.jpg|thumb|left|250px|[[Jumbo Jet]]]] [73] => The application of steam-powered cast iron blowing cylinders for providing pressurized air for [[blast furnace]]s lead to a large increase in iron production in the late 18th century. The higher furnace temperatures made possible with steam-powered blast allowed for the use of more lime in [[blast furnace]]s, which enabled the transition from charcoal to [[coke (fuel)|coke]].{{cite book|title=A History of Metallurgy, Second Edition |last=Tylecote |first=R.F. |year= 1992|publisher =Maney Publishing, for the Institute of Materials |location= London|isbn=978-0-901462-88-6}} These innovations lowered the cost of iron, making [[Wagonway|horse railways]] and iron bridges practical. The [[Puddling (metallurgy)|puddling process]], patented by [[Henry Cort]] in 1784 produced large scale quantities of wrought iron. [[Hot blast]], patented by [[James Beaumont Neilson]] in 1828, greatly lowered the amount of fuel needed to smelt iron. With the development of the high pressure steam engine, the power to weight ratio of steam engines made practical steamboats and locomotives possible.{{cite book |title=A History of Industrial Power in the United States, 1730–1930, Vol. 2: Steam Power |last1=Hunter |first1= Louis C.|year=1985 | publisher =University Press of Virginia|location= Charlottesville}} New steel making processes, such as the [[Bessemer process]] and the open hearth furnace, ushered in an area of heavy engineering in the late 19th century. [74] => [75] => One of the most famous engineers of the mid-19th century was [[Isambard Kingdom Brunel]], who built railroads, dockyards and steamships. [76] => [77] => [[File:Gulf Offshore Platform.jpg|thumb|upright|Offshore platform, [[Gulf of Mexico]]]] [78] => The [[Industrial Revolution]] created a demand for machinery with metal parts, which led to the development of several [[machine tools]]. Boring cast iron cylinders with precision was not possible until [[John Wilkinson (industrialist)|John Wilkinson]] invented his [[John Wilkinson (industrialist)#Boring machine for steam engines|boring machine]], which is considered the first [[machine tool]].{{cite book | last = Roe | first = Joseph Wickham | title = English and American Tool Builders | publisher = Yale University Press | year = 1916 | location = New Haven, Connecticut | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=X-EJAAAAIAAJ | lccn = 16011753 | access-date = November 10, 2018 | archive-date = January 26, 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210126171157/https://books.google.com/books?id=X-EJAAAAIAAJ | url-status = live }} Other machine tools included the [[screw cutting lathe]], [[milling machine]], [[turret lathe]] and the [[Planer (metalworking)|metal planer]]. Precision machining techniques were developed in the first half of the 19th century. These included the use of gigs to guide the machining tool over the work and fixtures to hold the work in the proper position. Machine tools and machining techniques capable of producing [[interchangeable parts]] lead to [[Mass production|large scale factory production]] by the late 19th century.{{Hounshell1984}} [79] => [80] => The United States Census of 1850 listed the occupation of "engineer" for the first time with a count of 2,000.{{Cite book |last=Cowan |first=Ruth Schwartz |title=A Social History of American Technology |publisher=Oxford University Press |place=New York |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-19-504605-2|page=138}} There were fewer than 50 engineering graduates in the U.S. before 1865. In 1870 there were a dozen U.S. mechanical engineering graduates, with that number increasing to 43 per year in 1875. In 1890, there were 6,000 engineers in civil, [[mining]], mechanical and electrical. [81] => [82] => There was no chair of applied mechanism and applied mechanics at Cambridge until 1875, and no chair of engineering at Oxford until 1907. Germany established technical universities earlier. [83] => {{cite book [84] => |title=A Short History of Twentieth Century Technology [85] => |last=Williams [86] => |first= Trevor I. [87] => |year= 1982|publisher =Oxford University Press [88] => |location= US [89] => |isbn= 978-0-19-858159-8 |pages=3 [90] => }} [91] => [92] => [93] => The foundations of [[electrical engineering]] in the 1800s included the experiments of [[Alessandro Volta]], [[Michael Faraday]], [[Georg Ohm]] and others and the invention of the [[electrical telegraph|electric telegraph]] in 1816 and the [[electric motor]] in 1872. The theoretical work of [[James Clerk Maxwell|James Maxwell]] (see: [[Maxwell's equations]]) and [[Heinrich Hertz]] in the late 19th century gave rise to the field of [[electronics]]. The later inventions of the [[vacuum tube]] and the [[transistor]] further accelerated the development of electronics to such an extent that electrical and electronics engineers currently outnumber their colleagues of any other engineering specialty. [94] => [[Chemical engineering]] developed in the late nineteenth century. Industrial scale manufacturing demanded new materials and new processes and by 1880 the need for large scale production of chemicals was such that a new industry was created, dedicated to the development and large scale manufacturing of chemicals in new industrial plants. The role of the chemical engineer was the design of these chemical plants and processes. [95] => [96] => [[File:Four solaire 001.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|The [[Odeillo solar furnace|solar furnace at Odeillo]] in the [[Pyrénées-Orientales]] in [[France]] can reach temperatures up to {{convert|3500|C|F}}.]] [97] => [98] => Aeronautical engineering deals with [[aircraft design process]] design while [[aerospace engineering]] is a more modern term that expands the reach of the discipline by including [[spacecraft]] design. Its origins can be traced back to the aviation pioneers around the start of the 20th century although the work of [[Sir George Cayley]] has recently been dated as being from the last decade of the 18th century. Early knowledge of aeronautical engineering was largely empirical with some concepts and skills imported from other branches of engineering.{{cite encyclopedia | author = Van Every, Kermit E. | encyclopedia = Encyclopedia Americana | title = Aeronautical engineering| year = 1986| publisher = Grolier Incorporated| volume =1| pages = 226 }} [99] => [100] => The first [[Doctor of Philosophy|PhD]] in engineering (technically, ''applied science and engineering'') awarded in the United States went to [[Josiah Willard Gibbs]] at [[Yale University]] in 1863; it was also the second PhD awarded in science in the U.S. [101] => {{cite book [102] => | last = Wheeler [103] => | first = Lynde Phelps [104] => | title = Josiah Willard Gibbs – the History of a Great Mind [105] => | publisher = Ox Bow Press [106] => | year = 1951 [107] => | isbn = 978-1-881987-11-6}} [108] => [109] => Only a [[decade]] after the successful flights by the [[Wright brothers]], there was extensive development of aeronautical engineering through development of military aircraft that were used in [[World War I]]. Meanwhile, research to provide fundamental background science continued by combining [[theoretical physics]] with experiments. [110] => [111] => ==Main branches of engineering== [112] => {{For outline|Outline of engineering}} [113] => [114] => [[File:Hoover dam from air.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|[[Hoover Dam]]]] [115] => [116] => Engineering is a broad discipline that is often broken down into several sub-disciplines. Although an engineer will usually be trained in a specific discipline, he or she may become multi-disciplined through experience. Engineering is often characterized as having four main branches:[https://books.google.com/books?id=Hy9WAAAAMAAJ&q=In+most+universities+it+should+be+possible+to+cover+the+main+branches+of+engineering,+ie+civil,+mechanical,+electrical+and+chemical+engineering+in+this+way. Journal of the British Nuclear Energy Society: Volume 1 British Nuclear Energy Society – 1962 – Snippet view] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150921052200/https://books.google.com/books?id=Hy9WAAAAMAAJ&q=In+most+universities+it+should+be+possible+to+cover+the+main+branches+of+engineering,+ie+civil,+mechanical,+electrical+and+chemical+engineering+in+this+way.&dq=In+most+universities+it+should+be+possible+to+cover+the+main+branches+of+engineering,+ie+civil,+mechanical,+electrical+and+chemical+engineering+in+this+way.&hl=en&ei=2UkYTff0MZL-ngfesbGMDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAA |date=September 21, 2015 }} Quote: In most universities it should be possible to cover the main branches of engineering, i.e. civil, mechanical, electrical and chemical engineering in this way. More specialized fields of engineering application, of which [[nuclear power]] is ...[https://web.archive.org/web/20070810194330/http://www.engc.org.uk/documents/Hamilton.pdf The Engineering Profession] by Sir James Hamilton, UK Engineering Council Quote: "The Civilingenior degree encompasses the main branches of engineering civil, mechanical, electrical, chemical." (From the Internet Archive){{cite book|author=Indu Ramchandani|title=Student's Britannica India,7vol.Set|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g37xOBJfersC&pg=PA146|access-date=March 23, 2013|year=2000|publisher=Popular Prakashan|isbn=978-0-85229-761-2|page=146|quote=Branches: There are traditionally four primary engineering disciplines: civil, mechanical, electrical and chemical.|archive-date=December 5, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131205220547/http://books.google.com/books?id=g37xOBJfersC&pg=PA146|url-status=live}} chemical engineering, civil engineering, electrical engineering, and mechanical engineering. [117] => [118] => ===Chemical engineering=== [119] => {{Main|Chemical engineering}} [120] => Chemical engineering is the application of physics, chemistry, biology, and engineering principles in order to carry out chemical processes on a commercial scale, such as the manufacture of [[commodity chemicals]], [[specialty chemicals]], [[Oil refinery|petroleum refining]], [[microfabrication]], [[fermentation]], and [[Biotechnology|biomolecule production]]. [121] => [122] => ===Civil engineering=== [123] => {{Main|Civil engineering}} [124] => Civil engineering is the design and construction of public and private works, such as [[infrastructure]] (airports, roads, railways, water supply, and treatment etc.), bridges, tunnels, dams, and buildings.{{cite web |title=History and Heritage of Civil Engineering |work=[[American Society of Civil Engineers|ASCE]] |url=http://live.asce.org/hh/index.mxml?versionChecked=true |access-date=August 8, 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070216235716/http://live.asce.org/hh/index.mxml?versionChecked=true |archive-date=February 16, 2007 }}{{cite web|url=https://www.ice.org.uk/careers-and-professional-development/what-is-civil-engineering|title=What is Civil Engineering|date= |publisher=[[Institution of Civil Engineers]]|access-date=May 15, 2017|archive-date=January 30, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170130040347/https://www.ice.org.uk/careers-and-professional-development/what-is-civil-engineering|url-status=live}} Civil engineering is traditionally broken into a number of sub-disciplines, including [[structural engineering]], [[environmental engineering]], and [[surveying]]. It is traditionally considered to be separate from [[military engineering]].{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia = Encyclopaedia Britannica|url = https://www.britannica.com/technology/civil-engineering|title = Civil Engineering|last = Watson|first = J. Garth|access-date = April 11, 2018|archive-date = March 31, 2018|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180331191056/https://www.britannica.com/technology/civil-engineering|url-status = live}} [125] => [126] => ===Electrical engineering=== [127] => {{Main|Electrical engineering}} [128] => [[File:Rotterdam_Ahoy_Europort_2011_(14).JPG|thumb|[[Electric motor]]]] [129] => Electrical engineering is the design, study, and manufacture of various electrical and electronic systems, such as [[broadcast engineering]], [[electrical circuit]]s, [[Electrical generator|generators]], [[Electric motor|motors]], [[electromagnetism|electromagnetic]]/[[electromechanical]] devices, [[electronic devices]], [[electronic circuits]], [[optical fiber]]s, [[optoelectronic device]]s, [[computer]] systems, [[telecommunications]], [[instrumentation]], [[control system]]s, and [[electronics]]. [130] => [131] => ===Mechanical engineering=== [132] => {{Main|Mechanical engineering}} [133] => Mechanical engineering is the design and manufacture of physical or mechanical systems, such as power and [[energy]] systems, [[aerospace]]/[[aircraft]] products, [[weapon systems]], [[transportation]] products, [[Internal combustion engine|engines]], [[gas compressor|compressors]], [[powertrain]]s, [[kinematic chain]]s, vacuum technology, [[vibration isolation]] equipment, [[manufacturing]], robotics, turbines, audio equipments, and [[mechatronics]]. [134] => [135] => ===Bioengineering=== [136] => {{Main|Biological engineering}} [137] => Bioengineering is the engineering of biological systems for a useful purpose. Examples of bioengineering research include bacteria engineered to produce chemicals, new medical imaging technology, portable and rapid disease diagnostic devices, prosthetics, biopharmaceuticals, and tissue-engineered organs. [138] => [139] => ==Interdisciplinary engineering== [140] => {{Main|List of engineering branches}} [141] => Interdisciplinary engineering draws from more than one of the principle branches of the practice. Historically, [[naval architecture|naval engineering]] and [[mining engineering]] were major branches. Other engineering fields are [[manufacturing engineering]], [[acoustical engineering]], [[corrosion engineering]], [[instrumentation and control]], [[Aerospace engineering|aerospace]], [[Automotive engineering|automotive]], [[computer engineering|computer]], [[electronic engineering|electronic]], [[Information engineering (field)|information engineering]], [[petroleum engineering|petroleum]], [[Environmental engineering|environmental]], [[systems engineering|systems]], [[audio engineering|audio]], [[software engineering|software]], [[architectural engineering|architectural]], [[agricultural engineering|agricultural]], [[biosystems engineering|biosystems]], [[biomedical engineering|biomedical]],Bronzino JD, ed., The Biomedical Engineering Handbook, CRC Press, 2006, {{ISBN|0-8493-2121-2}} [[Geological engineering|geological]], [[Textile manufacturing|textile]], [[industrial engineering|industrial]], [[materials science|materials]],{{cite journal|last1=Bensaude-Vincent|first1=Bernadette|title=The construction of a discipline: Materials science in the United States|journal=Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences|date=March 2001|volume=31|issue=2|pages=223–48|doi=10.1525/hsps.2001.31.2.223}} and [[nuclear engineering]].{{cite web |url=http://www.careercornerstone.org/pdf/nuclear/nuceng.pdf |title=Nuclear Engineering Overview |website=Career Cornerstone Center |access-date=August 2, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110929162436/http://www.careercornerstone.org/pdf/nuclear/nuceng.pdf |archive-date=September 29, 2011 }} These and other branches of engineering are represented in the 36 licensed member institutions of the UK [[Engineering Council]]. [142] => [143] => New specialties sometimes combine with the traditional fields and form new branches – for example, [[Earth systems engineering and management]] involves a wide range of subject areas including [[engineering studies]], [[environmental science]], [[engineering ethics]] and [[philosophy of engineering]]. [144] => [145] => == Other branches of engineering == [146] => [147] => === Aerospace engineering === [148] => {{Main|Aerospace engineering}} [149] => [[File:PIA19664-MarsInSightLander-Assembly-20150430.jpg|thumb|250px|The ''[[InSight]]'' lander with solar panels deployed in a cleanroom]] [150] => Aerospace engineering covers the design, development, manufacture and operational behaviour of [[aircraft]], [[satellite]]s and [[rocket]]s. [151] => [152] => === Marine engineering === [153] => {{Main|Marine engineering}} [154] => Marine engineering covers the design, development, manufacture and operational behaviour of [[watercraft]] and stationary structures like [[oil platform]]s and [[port]]s. [155] => [156] => === Computer engineering === [157] => {{main|Computer engineering}} [158] => [159] => Computer engineering (CE) is a branch of engineering that integrates several fields of computer science and [[electronic engineering]] required to develop [[computer hardware]] and [[software]]. Computer engineers usually have training in electronic engineering (or [[electrical engineering]]), [[software design]], and hardware-software integration instead of only [[software engineering]] or electronic engineering. [160] => [161] => === Geological engineering === [162] => {{main|Geological engineering}} [163] => [164] => Geological engineering is associated with anything constructed on or within the Earth. This discipline applies [[geological]] sciences and engineering principles to direct or support the work of other disciplines such as [[civil engineering]], [[environmental engineering]], and [[mining engineering]]. Geological engineers are involved with impact studies for facilities and operations that affect surface and subsurface environments, such as rock excavations (e.g. [[tunnels]]), [[building foundation]] consolidation, slope and fill stabilization, [[landslide]] risk assessment, groundwater monitoring, [[groundwater remediation]], mining excavations, and [[natural resource]] exploration. [165] => [166] => ==Practice== [167] => {{unreferenced section|date=June 2020}} [168] => One who practices engineering is called an [[engineer]], and those licensed to do so may have more formal designations such as [[Professional Engineer]], [[Chartered Engineer]], [[Incorporated Engineer]], [[Ingenieur]], [[European Engineer]], or [[Federal Aviation Administration#Designated Engineering Representative (DER)|Designated Engineering Representative]]. [169] => [170] => ==Methodology== [171] => {{more citations needed section|date=June 2020}} [172] => [[File:Dampfturbine Montage01.jpg|thumb|upright|Design of a [[turbine]] requires collaboration of engineers from many fields, as the system involves mechanical, electro-magnetic and chemical processes. The [[turbine blade|blades]], [[stator|rotor and stator]] as well as the [[steam cycle]] all need to be carefully designed and optimized.]] [173] => [174] => In the [[engineering design]] process, engineers apply mathematics and sciences such as physics to find novel solutions to problems or to improve existing solutions. Engineers need proficient knowledge of relevant sciences for their design projects. As a result, many engineers continue to learn new material throughout their careers. [175] => [176] => If multiple solutions exist, engineers weigh each design choice based on their merit and choose the solution that best matches the requirements. The task of the engineer is to identify, understand, and interpret the constraints on a design in order to yield a successful result. It is generally insufficient to build a technically successful product, rather, it must also meet further requirements. [177] => [178] => Constraints may include available resources, physical, imaginative or technical limitations, flexibility for future modifications and additions, and other factors, such as requirements for cost, [[Safety engineering|safety]], marketability, productivity, and [[Serviceability (computer)|serviceability]]. By understanding the constraints, engineers derive [[specifications]] for the limits within which a viable object or system may be produced and operated. [179] => [180] => ===Problem solving=== [181] => [[File:Booster-Layout.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|left|A drawing for a [[steam locomotive]]. Engineering is applied to [[design]], with emphasis on function and the utilization of mathematics and science.]] [182] => Engineers use their knowledge of [[science]], [[mathematics]], [[logic]], [[economics]], and [[empirical knowledge|appropriate experience]] or [[tacit knowledge]] to find suitable solutions to a particular problem. Creating an appropriate [[mathematical model]] of a problem often allows them to analyze it (sometimes definitively), and to test potential solutions.{{Cite web|url=https://www.livescience.com/47499-what-is-engineering.html|title=What is engineering? |last=Lucas |first=Jim |website=Live Science |date=August 22, 2014|language=en|access-date=September 15, 2019|archive-date=July 2, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190702140957/https://www.livescience.com/47499-what-is-engineering.html|url-status=live}} [183] => [184] => More than one solution to a design problem usually exists so the different [[design choice]]s have to be evaluated on their merits before the one judged most suitable is chosen. [[Genrich Altshuller]], after gathering statistics on a large number of [[patent]]s, suggested that [[compromise]]s are at the heart of "[[level of invention|low-level]]" engineering designs, while at a higher level the best design is one which eliminates the core contradiction causing the problem.{{Cite web|url=http://theoriesaboutengineering.org/genrich_altshuller.html|website=Theories About Engineering |title= Genrich Altshuller's Theory of Inventive Problem Solving |access-date=September 15, 2019|archive-date=September 11, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190911220432/http://theoriesaboutengineering.org/genrich_altshuller.html|url-status=live}} [185] => [186] => Engineers typically attempt to predict how well their designs will perform to their specifications prior to full-scale production. They use, among other things: [[prototype]]s, [[scale model]]s, [[simulation]]s, [[destructive testing|destructive tests]], [[nondestructive testing|nondestructive tests]], and [[stress testing|stress tests]]. Testing ensures that products will perform as expected but only in so far as the testing has been representative of use in service. For products, such as aircraft, that are used differently by different users failures and unexpected shortcomings (and necessary design changes) can be expected throughout the operational life of the product.{{Cite web|url=https://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/engineering-design-process/engineering-design-compare-scientific-method|title=Comparing the Engineering Design Process and the Scientific Method|website=Science Buddies|language=en-US|access-date=September 15, 2019|archive-date=December 16, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191216191107/https://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/engineering-design-process/engineering-design-compare-scientific-method|url-status=live}} [187] => [188] => Engineers take on the responsibility of producing designs that will perform as well as expected and, except those employed in specific areas of the [[arms industry]], will not harm people. Engineers typically include a [[factor of safety]] in their designs to reduce the risk of unexpected failure. [189] => [190] => The study of failed products is known as [[forensic engineering]]. It attempts to identify the cause of failure to allow a redesign of the product and so prevent a re-occurrence. Careful analysis is needed to establish the cause of failure of a product. The consequences of a failure may vary in severity from the minor cost of a machine breakdown to large loss of life in the case of accidents involving aircraft and large stationary structures like buildings and dams.{{Cite web|url=https://www.asce.org/forensic-engineering/forensic-engineering/|title=Forensic Engineering {{!}} ASCE|website=www.asce.org|access-date=September 15, 2019|archive-date=April 8, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200408165523/https://www.asce.org/forensic-engineering/forensic-engineering/|url-status=live}} [191] => [192] => ===Computer use=== [193] => [[File:CFD Shuttle.jpg|thumb|left|A computer simulation of high velocity air flow around a [[Space Shuttle orbiter]] during re-entry. Solutions to the flow require [[Finite element method|modelling]] of the combined effects of [[Navier–Stokes equations|fluid flow]] and the [[heat equation]]s.]] [194] => [195] => As with all modern scientific and technological endeavors, computers and software play an increasingly important role. As well as the typical business [[application software]] there are a number of computer aided applications ([[computer-aided technologies]]) specifically for engineering. Computers can be used to generate models of fundamental physical processes, which can be solved using [[numerical method]]s. [196] => [197] => [[File:WorldWideWebAroundWikipedia.png|thumb|upright=1.3|Graphic representation of a minute fraction of the WWW, demonstrating [[hyperlink]]s]] [198] => One of the most widely used [[design tool]]s in the profession is [[computer-aided design]] (CAD) software. It enables engineers to create 3D models, 2D drawings, and schematics of their designs. CAD together with [[digital mockup]] (DMU) and [[Computer-aided engineering|CAE]] software such as [[Finite element method|finite element method analysis]] or [[analytic element method]] allows engineers to create models of designs that can be analyzed without having to make expensive and time-consuming physical prototypes. [199] => [200] => These allow products and components to be checked for flaws; assess fit and assembly; study ergonomics; and to analyze static and dynamic characteristics of systems such as stresses, temperatures, electromagnetic emissions, electrical currents and voltages, digital logic levels, fluid flows, and kinematics. Access and distribution of all this information is generally organized with the use of [[product data management]] software.{{cite web [201] => | last = Arbe [202] => | first = Katrina [203] => | title = PDM: Not Just for the Big Boys Anymore [204] => | publisher = ThomasNet [205] => | date = May 7, 2001 [206] => | url = http://news.thomasnet.com/IMT/archives/2001/05/pdm_not_just_fo.html [207] => | access-date = December 30, 2006 [208] => | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100806185926/http://news.thomasnet.com/IMT/archives/2001/05/pdm_not_just_fo.html [209] => | archive-date = August 6, 2010 [210] => | url-status=dead [211] => }} [212] => [213] => There are also many tools to support specific engineering tasks such as [[computer-aided manufacturing]] (CAM) software to generate [[CNC]] machining instructions; [[manufacturing process management]] software for production engineering; [[Electronic design automation|EDA]] for [[printed circuit board]] (PCB) and circuit [[schematic]]s for electronic engineers; [[Maintenance, repair, and operations|MRO]] applications for maintenance management; and Architecture, engineering and construction (AEC) software for civil engineering. [214] => [215] => In recent years the use of computer software to aid the development of goods has collectively come to be known as [[product lifecycle management]] (PLM).{{cite web [216] => | last = Arbe [217] => | first = Katrina [218] => | title = The Latest Chapter in CAD Software Evaluation [219] => | publisher = ThomasNet [220] => | date = May 22, 2003 [221] => | url = http://news.thomasnet.com/IMT/archives/2003/05/the_latest_chap.html [222] => | access-date = December 30, 2006 [223] => | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100806132726/http://news.thomasnet.com/IMT/archives/2003/05/the_latest_chap.html [224] => | archive-date = August 6, 2010 [225] => | url-status=dead [226] => }} [227] => [228] => ==Social context== [229] => [[File:Kismet-IMG 6007-gradient.jpg|thumb|left|[[Robotic]] [[Kismet (robot)|Kismet]] can produce a range of facial expressions.]] [230] => The engineering profession engages in a range of activities, from collaboration at the societal level, and smaller individual projects. Almost all engineering projects are obligated to a funding source: a company, a set of investors, or a government. The types of engineering that are less constrained by such a funding source, are ''[[pro bono]]'', and [[open design|open-design]] engineering. [231] => [232] => Engineering has interconnections with society, culture and human behavior. Most products and constructions used by modern society, are influenced by engineering. Engineering activities have an impact on the environment, society, economies, and public safety. [233] => [234] => Engineering projects can be controversial. Examples from different engineering disciplines include: the development of [[nuclear weapon]]s, the [[Three Gorges Dam]], the design and use of [[sport utility vehicle]]s and the extraction of [[Fuel oil|oil]]. In response, some engineering companies have enacted serious [[Corporate social responsibility|corporate and social responsibility]] policies. [235] => [236] => Engineering is a key driver of innovation and human development. Sub-Saharan Africa, in particular, has a small engineering capacity which results in many African nations being unable to develop crucial infrastructure without outside aid.{{Citation needed|date=March 2013}} The attainment of many of the [[Millennium Development Goals]] requires the achievement of sufficient engineering capacity to develop infrastructure and sustainable technological development.{{cite web|url =http://www.sistech.co.uk/media/ICEBrunelLecture2006.pdf?Docu_id=1420&faculty=14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061006054029/http://www.sistech.co.uk/media/ICEBrunelLecture2006.pdf?Docu_id=1420&faculty=14 |archive-date=October 6, 2006|url-status=dead|title = Engineering Civilisation from the Shadows|last = Jowitt|first = Paul W.|date = 2006 }} [237] => [238] => [[File:ElementBlack2.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.15|Radar, [[GPS]], [[lidar]], etc. are all combined to provide proper navigation and [[obstacle avoidance]] (vehicle developed for 2007 [[DARPA Urban Challenge]]).]] [239] => [240] => Overseas development and relief NGOs make considerable use of engineers, to apply solutions in disaster and development scenarios. Some charitable organizations use engineering directly for development: [241] => * [[Engineers Without Borders]] [242] => * [[Engineers Against Poverty]] [243] => * Registered Engineers for Disaster Relief [244] => * [[Engineers for a Sustainable World]] [245] => * [[Engineering for Change]] [246] => * Engineering Ministries International[http://www.emiusa.org/index.html Home page for EMI] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120414014038/http://emiusa.org/index.html |date=April 14, 2012 }} [247] => [248] => Engineering companies in more developed economies face challenges with regard to the number of engineers being trained, compared with those retiring. This problem is prominent in the UK where engineering has a poor image and low status.{{cite web|url=http://www.engineeringuk.com/About_us/|title=engineeringuk.com/About_us|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140530210132/http://www.engineeringuk.com/About_us/|archive-date=May 30, 2014}} There are negative economic and political issues that this can cause, as well as ethical issues.{{cite web |url=http://www.georgededwards.co.uk/policy/why-does-it-matter-why-are-engineering-skills-important |title=Why Does It Matter? – why are engineering skills important? |author= George Edwards |access-date=June 19, 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20140619142335/http://www.georgededwards.co.uk/policy/why-does-it-matter-why-are-engineering-skills-important |archive-date=June 19, 2014 }} It is agreed the engineering profession faces an "image crisis".{{cite web |url=http://www.georgededwards.co.uk/the-era-foundation-report.html |title=The ERA Foundation Report |author= George Edwards |access-date=June 19, 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006103241/http://www.georgededwards.co.uk/the-era-foundation-report.html |archive-date=October 6, 2014 }} The UK holds the [[:Category:Engineering companies by country|most engineering companies]] compared to other European countries, together with the United States.{{cn|date=December 2023}} [249] => [250] => ===Code of ethics=== [251] => {{Main|Engineering ethics}} [252] => Many [[Engineering society|engineering societies]] have established codes of practice and [[engineering ethics|codes of ethics]] to guide members and inform the public at large. The [[National Society of Professional Engineers]] code of ethics states: [253] => {{blockquote| Engineering is an important and learned profession. As members of this profession, engineers are expected to exhibit the highest standards of honesty and integrity. Engineering has a direct and vital impact on the quality of life for all people. Accordingly, the services provided by engineers require honesty, impartiality, fairness, and equity, and must be dedicated to the protection of the public health, safety, and welfare. Engineers must perform under a standard of professional behavior that requires adherence to the highest principles of ethical conduct.{{cite web|url=https://www.nspe.org/resources/ethics/code-ethics|title=Code of Ethics|publisher=National Society of Professional Engineers|access-date=July 12, 2017|archive-date=February 18, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200218064318/https://www.nspe.org/resources/ethics/code-ethics|url-status=live}}}} [254] => [255] => In Canada, engineers wear the [[Iron Ring]] as a symbol and reminder of the obligations and ethics associated with their profession.{{Cite web |url=http://www.ironring.ca/ |title=Origin of the Iron Ring concept |access-date=August 13, 2021 |archive-date=April 30, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110430202754/http://www.ironring.ca/ |url-status=live }} [256] => [257] => ==Relationships with other disciplines== [258] => [259] => ===Science=== [260] => {{blockquote|''Scientists study the world as it is; engineers create the world that has never been.''|[[Theodore von Kármán]]{{cite web [261] => |title=Chair's Message, Caltech. [262] => |last=Rosakis [263] => |first=Ares [264] => |url=http://www.eas.caltech.edu/about/chair [265] => |access-date=15 October 2011 [266] => |url-status=dead [267] => |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111104130716/http://www.eas.caltech.edu/about/chair [268] => |archive-date=4 November 2011 [269] => }}{{cite web|title=Improving the capability to Engineer Complex Systems – Broadening the Conversation on the Art and Science of Systems Engineering|last=Ryschkewitsch|first=M.G. NASA Chief Engineer|page=8 of 21|url=http://sdm.mit.edu/conf09/presentations/ryschkewitsch.pdf|access-date=October 15, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130814075607/http://sdm.mit.edu/conf09/presentations/ryschkewitsch.pdf|archive-date=August 14, 2013|url-status=dead}}{{cite book|last=American Society for Engineering Education|title=Engineering education|year=1970|publisher=American Society for Engineering Education|volume=60|quote=The great engineer Theodore von Karman once said, "Scientists study the world as it is, engineers create the world that never has been." Today, more than ever, the engineer must create a world that never has been ...|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=frZVAAAAMAAJ&q=Scientists+study+the+world+as+it+is;+engineers+create+the+world+that+has+never+been|page=467|access-date=June 27, 2015|archive-date=April 16, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416122644/https://books.google.com/books?id=frZVAAAAMAAJ&q=Scientists+study+the+world+as+it+is;+engineers+create+the+world+that+has+never+been|url-status=live}} }} [270] => [271] => [[File:Worker inside the target chamber of the National Ignition Facility.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|left|Engineers, scientists and technicians at work on target positioner inside [[National Ignition Facility]] (NIF) target chamber]] [272] => [273] => There exists an overlap between the sciences and engineering practice; in engineering, one applies science. Both areas of endeavor rely on accurate observation of materials and phenomena. Both use mathematics and classification criteria to analyze and communicate observations.{{citation needed|date=August 2013}} [274] => [275] => Scientists may also have to complete engineering tasks, such as designing experimental apparatus or building prototypes. Conversely, in the process of developing technology, engineers sometimes find themselves exploring new phenomena, thus becoming, for the moment, scientists or more precisely "engineering scientists".{{cite web |url=https://www.esm.psu.edu/academics/undergraduate/what-is-engineering-science.aspx |title=What is Engineering Science? |website=esm.psu.edu |access-date=September 7, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516163509/https://www.esm.psu.edu/academics/undergraduate/what-is-engineering-science.aspx |archive-date=2022-05-16 |url-status=live}} [276] => [277] => [[File:The station pictured from the SpaceX Crew Dragon 5 (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|The [[International Space Station]] is used to conduct science experiments in space.]] [278] => In the book ''[[What Engineers Know and How They Know It]]'',{{cite book|last=Vincenti|first=Walter G. |title=What Engineers Know and How They Know It: Analytical Studies from Aeronautical History|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|year=1993|isbn=978-0-8018-3974-0}} [[Walter Vincenti]] asserts that engineering research has a character different from that of scientific research. First, it often deals with areas in which the basic [[physics]] or [[chemistry]] are well understood, but the problems themselves are too complex to solve in an exact manner. [279] => [280] => There is a "real and important" difference between engineering and physics as similar to any science field has to do with technology.Walter G Whitman; August Paul Peck. ''Whitman-Peck Physics''. American Book Company, 1946, [https://books.google.com/books?id=gPRLAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA06 p. 06] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801101650/https://books.google.com/books?id=gPRLAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA06 |date=August 1, 2020 }}. {{OCLC|3247002}}Ateneo de Manila University Press. Philippine Studies, vol. 11, no. 4, 1963. [https://books.google.com/books?id=WKgSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA600 p. 600] Physics is an exploratory science that seeks knowledge of principles while engineering uses knowledge for practical applications of principles. The former equates an understanding into a mathematical principle while the latter measures variables involved and creates technology.{{Cite journal | doi=10.1109/JAIEE.1927.6534988|title = Relationship between physics and electrical engineering|journal = Journal of the A.I.E.E.| volume=46| issue=2| pages=107–108|year = 1927|s2cid = 51673339}}Puttaswamaiah. [https://books.google.com/books?id=lkitoDyVWG0C&pg=PA208 ''Future Of Economic Science''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181026144027/https://books.google.com/books?id=lkitoDyVWG0C&pg=PA208 |date=October 26, 2018 }}. Oxford and IBH Publishing, 2008, p. 208.Yoseph Bar-Cohen, Cynthia L. Breazeal. ''Biologically Inspired Intelligent Robots''. SPIE Press, 2003. {{ISBN|978-0-8194-4872-9}}. [https://books.google.com/books?id=5SZiAKpFwgC&pg=PA190 p. 190] For technology, physics is an auxiliary and in a way technology is considered as applied physics.C. Morón, E. Tremps, A. García, J.A. Somolinos (2011) The Physics and its Relation with the Engineering, INTED2011 Proceedings [https://library.iated.org/view/MORON2011THE pp. 5929–34] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220101632/https://library.iated.org/view/MORON2011THE |date=December 20, 2016 }}. {{ISBN|978-84-614-7423-3}} Though physics and engineering are interrelated, it does not mean that a physicist is trained to do an engineer's job. A physicist would typically require additional and relevant training.R Gazzinelli, R L Moreira, W N Rodrigues. [https://books.google.com/books?id=sJLsCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA110 ''Physics and Industrial Development: Bridging the Gap''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801102853/https://books.google.com/books?id=sJLsCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA110 |date=August 1, 2020 }}. World Scientific, 1997, p. 110. Physicists and engineers engage in different lines of work.Steve Fuller. Knowledge Management Foundations. Routledge, 2012. {{ISBN|978-1-136-38982-5}}. [https://books.google.com/books?id=ScgJBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA92 p. 92] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801095210/https://books.google.com/books?id=ScgJBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA92 |date=August 1, 2020 }} But PhD physicists who specialize in sectors of [[engineering physics]] and [[applied physics]] are titled as Technology officer, R&D Engineers and System Engineers.{{Cite web|url=https://www.aip.org/sites/default/files/statistics/phd-plus-10/physprivsect-chap7.pdf|title=Industrial Physicists: Primarily specialising in Engineering|date=October 2016|publisher=American Institute for Physics|access-date=December 23, 2016|archive-date=September 6, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906191436/https://www.aip.org/sites/default/files/statistics/phd-plus-10/physprivsect-chap7.pdf|url-status=live}} [281] => [282] => An example of this is the use of numerical approximations to the [[Navier–Stokes equations]] to describe aerodynamic flow over an aircraft, or the use of the [[finite element method]] to calculate the stresses in complex components. Second, engineering research employs many semi-[[empirical methods]] that are foreign to pure scientific research, one example being the method of parameter variation.{{Cite book |last=Baofu |first=Peter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pu8YBwAAQBAJ&dq=engineering+research+employs+many+semi-empirical+methods+that+are+foreign+to+pure+scientific+research,+one+example+being+the+method+of+parameter+variation&pg=PA141 |title=The Future of Post-Human Engineering: A Preface to a New Theory of Technology |date=2009-03-26 |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing |isbn=978-1-4438-0813-2 |pages=141 |language=en}} [283] => [284] => As stated by Fung ''et al.'' in the revision to the classic engineering text ''Foundations of Solid Mechanics'': [285] => [286] =>
Engineering is quite different from science. Scientists try to understand nature. Engineers try to make things that do not exist in nature. Engineers stress innovation and invention. To embody an invention the engineer must put his idea in concrete terms, and design something that people can use. That something can be a complex system, device, a gadget, a material, a method, a computing program, an innovative experiment, a new solution to a problem, or an improvement on what already exists. Since a design has to be realistic and functional, it must have its geometry, dimensions, and characteristics data defined. In the past engineers working on new designs found that they did not have all the required information to make design decisions. Most often, they were limited by insufficient scientific knowledge. Thus they studied [[mathematics]], [[physics]], [[chemistry]], [[biology]] and [[mechanics]]. Often they had to add to the sciences relevant to their profession. Thus engineering sciences were born.{{cite book|title=Classical and Computational Solid Mechanics, YC Fung and P. Tong|publisher=World Scientific|year=2001}}
[287] => [288] => Although engineering solutions make use of scientific principles, engineers must also take into account safety, efficiency, economy, reliability, and constructability or ease of fabrication as well as the environment, ethical and legal considerations such as patent infringement or liability in the case of failure of the solution.{{Cite web|url=https://www.nspe.org/resources/ethics/code-ethics|title=Code of Ethics {{!}} National Society of Professional Engineers|website=www.nspe.org|access-date=September 10, 2019|archive-date=February 18, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200218064318/https://www.nspe.org/resources/ethics/code-ethics|url-status=live}} [289] => [290] => ===Medicine and biology=== [291] => [[File:Modern_3T_MRI.JPG|thumb|left|250px|A 3 tesla clinical [[MRI scanner]]]] [292] => The study of the human body, albeit from different directions and for different purposes, is an important common link between medicine and some engineering disciplines. [[Medicine]] aims to sustain, repair, enhance and even replace functions of the [[human body]], if necessary, through the use of [[technology]]. [293] => [294] => [[File:GFP Mice 01.jpg|thumb|right|Genetically engineered mice expressing [[green fluorescent protein]], which glows green under blue light. The central mouse is [[wild-type]].]] [295] => Modern medicine can replace several of the body's functions through the use of artificial organs and can significantly alter the function of the human body through artificial devices such as, for example, [[brain implant]]s and [[Artificial pacemaker|pacemakers]].{{Cite web |url=http://www.bu.edu/wcp/Papers/Bioe/BioeMcGe.htm |title=Ethical Assessment of Implantable Brain Chips. Ellen M. McGee and G.Q. Maguire, Jr. from Boston University |access-date=March 30, 2007 |archive-date=April 7, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160407064911/http://www.bu.edu/wcp/Papers/Bioe/BioeMcGe.htm |url-status=live }}{{Cite journal |url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/1204814 |title=IEEE technical paper: Foreign parts (electronic body implants).by Evans-Pughe, C. quote from summary: Feeling threatened by cyborgs? |journal=IEE Review |date=May 2003 |volume=49 |issue=5 |pages=30–33 |doi=10.1049/ir:20030503 |access-date=March 3, 2020 |archive-date=March 3, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200303015247/https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/1204814 |url-status=live |last1=Evans-Pughe |first1=C. }} The fields of [[bionics]] and medical bionics are dedicated to the study of synthetic implants pertaining to natural systems. [296] => [297] => Conversely, some engineering disciplines view the human body as a biological machine worth studying and are dedicated to emulating many of its functions by replacing [[biology]] with technology. This has led to fields such as [[artificial intelligence]], [[Artificial neural network|neural networks]], [[fuzzy logic]], and [[robot]]ics. There are also substantial interdisciplinary interactions between engineering and medicine.[http://www.uphs.upenn.edu/ime/mission.html Institute of Medicine and Engineering: Mission statement The mission of the Institute for Medicine and Engineering (IME) is to stimulate fundamental research at the interface between biomedicine and engineering/physical/computational sciences leading to innovative applications in biomedical research and clinical practice.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070317145554/http://www.uphs.upenn.edu/ime/mission.html |date=March 17, 2007 }}{{Cite web |url=http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/RecentIssue.jsp?punumber=51 |title=IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology: Both general and technical articles on current technologies and methods used in biomedical and clinical engineering ... |access-date=March 30, 2007 |archive-date=February 13, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070213074931/http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/RecentIssue.jsp?punumber=51 |url-status=live }} [298] => [299] => Both fields provide solutions to real world problems. This often requires moving forward before phenomena are completely understood in a more rigorous scientific sense and therefore experimentation and empirical knowledge is an integral part of both. [300] => [301] => Medicine, in part, studies the function of the human body. The human body, as a biological machine, has many functions that can be modeled using engineering methods.[http://www.acmedsci.ac.uk/images/pressRelease/1170256174.pdf Royal Academy of Engineering and Academy of Medical Sciences: Systems Biology: a vision for engineering and medicine in pdf: quote1: Systems Biology is an emerging methodology that has yet to be defined quote2: It applies the concepts of systems engineering to the study of complex biological systems through iteration between computational or mathematical modelling and experimentation.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070410011033/http://www.acmedsci.ac.uk/images/pressRelease/1170256174.pdf |date=April 10, 2007 }} [302] => [303] => The heart for example functions much like a pump,{{Cite web |url=http://www.smm.org/heart/lessons/lesson5a.htm |title=Science Museum of Minnesota: Online Lesson 5a; The heart as a pump |access-date=September 27, 2006 |archive-date=September 27, 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060927073422/http://www.smm.org/heart/lessons/lesson5a.htm |url-status=live }} the skeleton is like a linked structure with levers,[http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/biology/humananatomy/skeletal/skeletalsystem.html Minnesota State University emuseum: Bones act as levers] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081220001131/http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/biology/humananatomy/skeletal/skeletalsystem.html |date=December 20, 2008 }} the brain produces [[Signal (electrical engineering)|electrical signals]] etc.{{Cite web |url=http://www.berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/2005/02/23_brainwaves.shtml |title=UC Berkeley News: UC researchers create model of brain's electrical storm during a seizure |access-date=March 30, 2007 |archive-date=February 2, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070202183307/http://www.berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/2005/02/23_brainwaves.shtml |url-status=live }} These similarities as well as the increasing importance and application of engineering principles in medicine, led to the development of the field of [[biomedical engineering]] that uses concepts developed in both disciplines. [304] => [305] => Newly emerging branches of science, such as [[systems biology]], are adapting analytical tools traditionally used for engineering, such as systems modeling and computational analysis, to the description of biological systems. [306] => [307] => ===Art=== [308] => [[File:Leonardo da Vinci - presumed self-portrait - WGA12798.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Leonardo da Vinci]], seen here in a self-portrait, has been described as the epitome of the artist/engineer. He is also known for his studies on [[human anatomy]] and [[physiology]].]] [309] => There are connections between engineering and art, for example, [[architecture]], [[landscape architecture]] and [[industrial design]] (even to the extent that these disciplines may sometimes be included in a university's [[Faculty (division)|Faculty]] of Engineering).{{Cite web |url=https://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=107990&org=NSF |title=National Science Foundation:The Art of Engineering: Professor uses the fine arts to broaden students' engineering perspectives |access-date=April 6, 2018 |archive-date=September 19, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180919211145/https://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=107990&org=NSF |url-status=live }}[http://mitworld.mit.edu/video/362/ MIT World:The Art of Engineering: Inventor James Dyson on the Art of Engineering: quote: A member of the British Design Council, James Dyson has been designing products since graduating from the Royal College of Art in 1970.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060705232213/http://mitworld.mit.edu/video/362/ |date=July 5, 2006 }}{{Cite web |url=http://iiae.utdallas.edu/ |title=University of Texas at Dallas: The Institute for Interactive Arts and Engineering |access-date=March 30, 2007 |archive-date=April 3, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070403182106/http://iiae.utdallas.edu/ |url-status=live }} [310] => [311] => The [[Art Institute of Chicago]], for instance, held an exhibition about the art of [[NASA]]'s aerospace design.{{Cite web |url=http://www.artic.edu/aic/exhibitions/nasa/overview.html |title=Aerospace Design: The Art of Engineering from NASA's Aeronautical Research |access-date=March 31, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030815085429/http://www.artic.edu/aic/exhibitions/nasa/overview.html |archive-date=August 15, 2003 |url-status=dead }} [[Robert Maillart]]'s bridge design is perceived by some to have been deliberately artistic.{{Cite book |url=http://press.princeton.edu/titles/137.html |title=Princeton U: Robert Maillart's Bridges: The Art of Engineering: quote: no doubt that Maillart was fully conscious of the aesthetic implications ... |date= 1989 |isbn=978-0691024219 |access-date=March 31, 2007 |archive-date=April 20, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070420145552/http://press.princeton.edu/titles/137.html |url-status=live |last1=Billington |first1=David P. |publisher=Princeton University Press }} At the [[University of South Florida]], an engineering professor, through a grant with the [[National Science Foundation]], has developed a course that connects art and engineering.[http://www.chiefengineer.org/content/content_display.cfm/seqnumber_content/2697.htm quote:..the tools of artists and the perspective of engineers..] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927180822/http://www.chiefengineer.org/content/content_display.cfm/seqnumber_content/2697.htm |date=September 27, 2007 }} [312] => [313] => Among famous historical figures, [[Leonardo da Vinci]] is a well-known [[Renaissance]] artist and engineer, and a prime example of the nexus between art and engineering.Bjerklie, David. "The Art of Renaissance Engineering." ''MIT's Technology Review'' Jan./Feb.1998: 54–59. Article explores the concept of the "artist-engineer", an individual who used his artistic talent in engineering. Quote from article: Da Vinci reached the pinnacle of "artist-engineer"-dom, Quote2: "It was Leonardo da Vinci who initiated the most ambitious expansion in the role of artist-engineer, progressing from astute observer to inventor to theoretician." (Bjerklie 58)[http://www.users.drew.edu/~ejustin/leonardo.htm Drew U: user website: cites Bjerklie paper] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070419194433/http://www.users.drew.edu/~ejustin/leonardo.htm |date=April 19, 2007 }} [314] => [315] => ===Business=== [316] => [317] => [[Business engineering]] deals with the relationship between professional engineering, IT systems, business administration and [[change management]]. [[Engineering management]] or "Management engineering" is a specialized field of [[management]] concerned with engineering practice or the engineering industry sector. The demand for management-focused engineers (or from the opposite perspective, managers with an understanding of engineering), has resulted in the development of specialized engineering management degrees that develop the knowledge and skills needed for these roles. During an engineering management course, students will develop [[industrial engineering]] skills, knowledge, and expertise, alongside knowledge of business administration, management techniques, and strategic thinking. Engineers specializing in change management must have in-depth knowledge of the application of [[industrial and organizational psychology]] principles and methods. Professional engineers often train as [[certified management consultant]]s in the very specialized field of [[management consulting]] applied to engineering practice or the engineering sector. This work often deals with large scale complex [[business transformation]] or [[business process management]] initiatives in aerospace and defence, automotive, oil and gas, machinery, pharmaceutical, food and beverage, electrical and electronics, power distribution and generation, utilities and transportation systems. This combination of technical engineering practice, management consulting practice, industry sector knowledge, and change management expertise enables professional engineers who are also qualified as management consultants to lead major business transformation initiatives. These initiatives are typically sponsored by C-level executives. [318] => [319] => ===Other fields=== [320] => In [[political science]], the term ''engineering'' has been borrowed for the study of the subjects of [[Social engineering (political science)|social engineering]] and [[political engineering]], which deal with forming [[political structure|political]] and [[social structure]]s using engineering methodology coupled with [[political science]] principles. [[Marketing engineering]] and [[financial engineering]] have similarly borrowed the term. [321] => [322] => ==See also== [323] => {{stack|{{Portal|Engineering}}}} [324] => {{Main|Outline of engineering}} [325] => ;Lists [326] => {{Div col|colwidth=25em}} [327] => * [[List of aerospace engineering topics]] [328] => * [[List of basic chemical engineering topics]] [329] => * [[List of electrical engineering topics]] [330] => * [[List of engineering societies]] [331] => * [[List of engineering topics]] [332] => * [[List of engineers]] [333] => * [[List of genetic engineering topics]] [334] => * [[List of mechanical engineering topics]] [335] => * [[List of nanoengineering topics]] [336] => * [[List of software engineering topics]] [337] => {{Div col end}} [338] => ;Glossaries [339] => {{Div col|colwidth=25em}} [340] => * [[Glossary of areas of mathematics]] [341] => * [[Glossary of biology]] [342] => * [[Glossary of chemistry terms|Glossary of chemistry]] [343] => * [[Glossary of engineering]] [344] => * [[Glossary of physics]] [345] => {{Div col end}} [346] => ;Related subjects [347] => {{Div col|colwidth=25em}} [348] => * [[Controversies over the term Engineer]] [349] => * [[Design]] [350] => * [[Earthquake engineering]] [351] => * [[Engineer]] [352] => * [[Engineering economics]] [353] => * [[Engineering education]] [354] => * [[Engineering education research]] [355] => * [[Environmental engineering science]] [356] => * [[Global Engineering Education]] [357] => * [[Green engineering]] [358] => * [[Reverse engineering]] [359] => * [[Structural failure]] [360] => * [[Sustainable engineering]] [361] => * [[Women in engineering]] [362] => {{Div col end}} [363] => [364] => ==References== [365] => {{Reflist}} [366] => [367] => ==Further reading== [368] => {{Refbegin}} [369] => * {{cite book|last=Blockley|first=David|title=Engineering: a very short introduction|year=2012|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0-19-957869-6}} [370] => * {{cite book |editor=[[Richard C. Dorf|Dorf, Richard]] |title=The Engineering Handbook |edition=2 |year=2005 |publisher=CRC |location=Boca Raton |isbn=978-0-8493-1586-2 }} [371] => * {{cite book |last=Billington |first=David P. |title=The Innovators: The Engineering Pioneers Who Made America Modern |date= 1996 |publisher=Wiley|edition= New |isbn=978-0-471-14026-9 }} [372] => * {{cite book |last=Madhavan |first=Guru |title=Applied Minds: How Engineers Think |date=2015 |publisher=W.W. Norton }} [373] => * {{cite book |last=Petroski |first=Henry |author-link=Henry Petroski |title=To Engineer is Human: The Role of Failure in Successful Design |date=1992 |publisher=Vintage |isbn=978-0-679-73416-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/toengineerishuma00petr |url-access=registration }} [374] => * {{cite book |last=Lord |first=Charles R. |title=Guide to Information Sources in Engineering |date=2000 |publisher=Libraries Unlimited |isbn=978-1-56308-699-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/guidetoinformati00lord |url-access=registration }} [375] => * {{cite book |last=Vincenti |first=Walter G. |title=What Engineers Know and How They Know It: Analytical Studies from Aeronautical History |date= 1993 |publisher=The Johns Hopkins University Press |isbn=978-0-8018-4588-8 |title-link=What Engineers Know and How They Know It }} [376] => {{Refend}} [377] => [378] => == External links == [379] => * {{Wiktionary-inline|engineering}} [380] => * {{Wikiversity inline|Engineering}} [381] => * {{Wikiquote-inline|Engineering}} [382] => * {{wikisource-inline|Category:Engineering|Engineering}} [383] => [384] => {{Engineering fields}} [385] => {{Philosophy of science}} [386] => {{Glossaries of science and engineering}} [387] => {{Industries}} [388] => [389] => {{Authority control}} [390] => [391] => [[Category:Engineering| ]] [392] => [[Category:Engineering occupations]] [393] => [[Category:Philosophy of science]] [394] => [[Category:Main topic articles]] [] => )
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Engineering

Engineering is the application of scientific, mathematical, economic, social, and practical knowledge to invent, innovate, design, build, maintain, research, and improve structures, machines, tools, systems, components, materials, processes, solutions, and organizations. The field of engineering encompasses numerous disciplines, including civil, mechanical, electrical, chemical, aerospace, and environmental engineering, among others.

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The field of engineering encompasses numerous disciplines, including civil, mechanical, electrical, chemical, aerospace, and environmental engineering, among others. Engineers use their knowledge to develop solutions to various problems, address societal needs, and improve the quality of life. They often work in teams and collaborate with professionals from different fields to create innovative and sustainable solutions. The engineering design process involves identifying a problem or opportunity, brainstorming ideas, evaluating alternatives, developing prototypes, and testing and refining the solution. Engineering has a significant impact on society and plays a crucial role in shaping the world we live in. It has contributed to advancements in transportation, communication, healthcare, energy, infrastructure, materials, and many other areas. Engineers have played integral roles in constructing cities, developing technologies, designing and manufacturing products, and maintaining and improving various systems and structures. The history of engineering dates back thousands of years, with early civilizations creating impressive structures, such as the pyramids in Egypt and the Great Wall of China. Over time, engineering has evolved and expanded, with advancements in scientific understanding, technological capabilities, and societal needs driving its progress. To become an engineer, individuals typically pursue an engineering degree at a university or college. They acquire knowledge and skills in their chosen field through coursework, laboratory work, and practical experience. Additionally, gaining professional licensure and joining engineering organizations can help engineers further their careers and stay up-to-date with the latest developments in their field. In summary, engineering is a diverse and rapidly evolving field that applies knowledge from various disciplines to solve complex problems and improve the world we live in. It encompasses a broad range of specialties and requires creativity, critical thinking, problem-solving, and collaboration skills.

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